Retinal circulation .........................................................520

Diabetic retinopathy ......................................................520

Non-diabetic retinopathy ..............................................538

Retinal venous occlusive disease ..................................538

Retinal arterial occlusive disease ..................................549

Ocular ischaemic syndrome ..........................................556

Hypertensive eye disease ..............................................557

Sickle cell retinopathy...................................................559

Thalassaemia retinopathy .............................................561

Retinopathy of prematurity ............................................561

Retinal artery macroaneurysm ......................................565

Primary retinal telangiectasia........................................569

Eales disease ...............................................................569

Radiation retinopathy ....................................................572

Purtscher retinopathy ....................................................572

Valsalva retinopathy ......................................................572

Lipaemia retinalis .........................................................574

Retinopathy in blood disorders .....................................574

Introduction ..................................................................580

Clinical evaluation of macular disease ..........................581

Investigation of macular disease ...................................586

Age-related macular degeneration ................................598

Retinal angiomatous proliferation .................................616

Polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy ................................617

Peripheral exudative haemorrhagic chorioretinopathy ......................................................618

Idiopathic choroidal neovascularization .........................618

Vitreomacular interface disorders..................................618

Central serous chorioretinopathy ...................................624

Idiopathic macular telangiectasia .................................627

Cystoid macular oedema ..............................................630

Microcystic macular oedema ........................................630

Degenerative myopia ....................................................631

Angioid streaks .............................................................635

Hypotony maculopathy..................................................637

Solar retinopathy ..........................................................638

Introduction ..................................................................642

Investigation .................................................................642

Generalized photoreceptor dystrophies .........................646

Macular dystrophies .....................................................660

Generalized choroidal dystrophies ................................667

Hereditary vitreoretinopathies .......................................669

Albinism .......................................................................678

Cherry-red spot at the macula ......................................680

Introduction ..................................................................682

Peripheral lesions predisposing to retinal detachment ...............................................................688

Posterior vitreous detachment.......................................694

Retinal breaks ..............................................................698

Rhegmatogenous retinal detachment ............................701

Tractional retinal detachment ........................................711

Exudative retinal detachment ........................................712

Pars plana vitrectomy ...................................................713

Introduction ..................................................................722

Muscae volitantes .........................................................722

Vitreous haemorrhage ...................................................722

Asteroid hyalosis ...........................................................722

Synchysis scintillans .....................................................722

Amyloidosis ..................................................................722

Vitreous cyst .................................................................726

Persistent fetal vasculature ...........................................726

Introduction ..................................................................728

Amblyopia ....................................................................737

Clinical evaluation ........................................................738

Pseudostrabismus ........................................................755

Heterophoria .................................................................756

Vergence abnormalities .................................................756

Esotropia ......................................................................757

Exotropia ......................................................................762

Congenital cranial dysinnervation disorders ..................764

Monocular elevation deficiency .....................................766

Brown syndrome ...........................................................766

Alphabet patterns .........................................................767

Surgery .........................................................................769

Botulinum toxin chemodenervation ...............................771